Final Exam - Mental Models

by Jared Tayco

Date Made: May 04, 2020

Reference used: 

Mental Models: The Best Way to Make Intelligent Decisions (109 Models Explained)

Farnnam Street Media, Inc.

https://fs.blog/mental-models/

Mental models are basically our representation of how we understand things in the world: a device of sorts we use to simplify complex details into information we can understand easily. Here are the following 109 mental models, each with its own definition and example, in my own words; also sorted in its specific category:

General Thinking Concepts

1. The Map is not the Territory -  Don't rely on something too much, or rather don't try to be too stubborn and just go with a certain method of thinking because that method may be out of date and plus even something that seems perfect doesn't necessarily means it's perfect.  Example: You are checking out your friend's Facebook profile, and you start to conclude that he or she is a happy person via checking through his or her countless updates of happy posts and pictures. But looking at the bigger picture, you will see that the life your friend is portraying on social media just says little about what his or her life truly is: the social media posts may be just fake ones, or rather just a way of hiding his or her true self.

2. Circle of Competence  -  It's a metaphor for knowing you are best at and trying to understand and accept who you are completely, and not to mention knowing what you are capable of and how to improve it further, so that you can grow to become an individual capable of his or her decisions.  Example: You know that you are good in writing and creating novels, so then you accept that and then you improve it, master it, and become more than that so that you can become more than just a writer -- you can become something even more, like a celebrity author or something.

3. First Principles Thinking  -  This involves knowing the basics first, or rather in this case, "principles" of the problem, or to be more specific, one should know the basics of the problem so that he or she can build up knowledge in order to create a solution around it, in order to avoid such things like assumptions, false conclusions and information. Example: When you are making a mobile or web application, you need to figure out first  what your web application is. What is it supposed to do? What benefits can you gain from using it? What special features should it have? What is the programming language used? How can you be able to do it? You need first to gather certain information, do some research, and find answers to questions like that before proceeding in creating your application.

4. Thought Experiment   -  This sort of thing is basically normal in our lives: we always try to find answers to our numerous questions in life, and so in order to investigate and know about such things in life, we do experiments based on the information we gathered about a certain thing, in order to have a visualization of sorts or rather an imaginative construct of how the nature the thing is.  Example: You always observe how relationships works, and so you get a thought how some relationships come and go. Then you try to do some experiments on those thoughts in order to verify your finding, in order to better learn on how one creates a relationship with someone in life and how does one make it strong or something.

5. Second-Order Thinking - 

   This involves a lesson in life we should follow: we need to always think first and assess the situation, and try to see beyond the possible outcomes and consequences of our actions, instead of just shooting ahead and doing something reckless immediately . Example: Let's assume a person is at a restaurant and needs to decide whether to go with the delicious chicken or the healthier salad. If that person does first-order thinking only, or rather, considers only the first-order consequence, which is that it will taste good, the person then orders the chicken. But if the person in questions uses second-order thinking and considers the second-order consequence, which is that the chicken's unhealthy and thus will make the person just fatter, so thus the person will likely order the salad instead.

    

6. Probabilistic Thinking  -  This is usually known as the method that involves using numbers, calculations, critical thinking, and a whole lot of math in order to get precise numbers on probabilities -- i.e., it's usually known as a way to know exactly one's chances in life.  Example: knowing the chances of you dying in certain scenarios: run over by car, pushed over a bridge, stabbed in an alleyway, punched and beaten to death by thugs, food poisoning, etc.

1. Fat-Tailed Processes -  The more extreme events possible, the higher the chances of that happening and perhaps getting even better or worse.  Example: if you buy stocks in the stock market, there is a high probability of it crashing and perhaps leading to nasty outcomes -- i.e. instant bankruptcy of the company, everyone out of a job, etc.

2. Bayesian Updating -  When making decisions, you shouldn't just take in every all possibilities you see as important and the just change them as new info or something --- you should always see the bigger picture of things, use odds from the beginning and new information together, in order to come up with the best decisions possible.  Example: A basketball player (male), let's say, would be 8 ft tall and you want to find out the probability of finding a 6 foot tall player in a basketball team; which I can assume is about 50%.

7. Inversion - When you want to "invert" a problem, it usually means to think backward, and not forward as what we usually do, for sometimes in life, in order to solve things, it helps to start at the last part rather than the first part.  Example: when it comes to thinking about relationships, inversion would involve avoiding toxic people to create great relationship and thus good for mental health.

8. Occam's Razor - Simplicity is key, or rather, the best way to explain things is in the simplest way possible, and not in the complex way.  Example: say you failed a test -- the possible explanations would be the following: a) you need to study harder, b) the questions are wrong, c) the ones in charge of the test created such a test in order to sabotage one's reputation or something. When using Occam's razor, explanation "a" is more likely.

9. Hanlon's Razor - Bad things happen not just because of people with bad intentions in mind, but because of carelessness or rather not thinking about something through properly. Example: we usually take everything personally; we always believe that the world's against us just because of accidents happening around or bad things happening around one's vicinity, but via the use of Hanlon's Razor, we can find a logical explanation of why such bad things are happening around us.

Physics and Chemistry

1. Relativity  - One cannot fully investigate, or "relate" , to anything that he or she is involved into without a different point of view from others that are in a different position from it,.  Example: A person in a car doesn't feel like he or she is feeling the wheels go around and around, but someone outside who sees the said moving vehicle can clearly see that the car has wheels that are going around and around.

2. Reciprocity - "What comes around comes around" -- if one does an action against something or someone, he or she will experience the same action done courtesy of the thing or someone he or she acted upon. Sort of like the Code of Hammurabi: an eye for an eye, a tooth for a tooth. Example: if a person punches or hurts another person, that another person will punch the person who punched him or her, or do something even worse.

3. Thermodynamics - Energy can't be created or destroyed; it can only be transferred from place to place or transformed into different forms; it is always used and constantly lost around us every moment in every second.  Example: Us people convert chemical energy in food (say from eating a pizza) into kinetic energy by riding a bicycle or running around to and fro or doing physical activities of any sort.

4. Inertia - Anything will stay still or keep moving the same way, unless something or someone unexpected acts upon it.  Example: Mostly honor students keep a steady routine when it comes to their studies, but when an obstacle comes in the form of something like a systems crash or physical injury, they might be off the honor roll in an instant.

5. Friction and Viscosity - These are the sort of forces that we can't control, or sometimes, makes things difficult for us or makes life seems like against us.  Example: Sometimes people who are graduated and used to professional work doesn't always get the work they wanted: sometimes they end up underemployed or worse unemployed.

6. Velocity - You can't just go anywhere without knowing where you are going; same goes for every action: you have to know first what are you doing before you go ahead and spring into action.  Example: Studying how to create programs doesn't mean anything unless you have a goal in mind: it will mean nothing unless you have an objective or a dream involving programs like becoming someone like Steve Jobs or something.

7. Leverage - With just enough effort, you can do great wonders in the world.  Example: When you work hard enough in your campaign for President, and earn people's trust and whatnot, you can be sure you will be sitting in the President's chair soon enough.

8. Activation Energy - Everything starts with something -- you always needed a jumpstart in life, or rather you need to wake up and find something, no matter what it, or think of something that lets you go throughout the day. Example: The thought of seeing your crush everyday at school is enough to jump start your brain and get started with the day.

9. Catalysts - In life, you always need something or someone that will start or maintain something in your life since nothing will happen in our life without it. Example: let's say there are two friends (a boy named Jason and a girl named Piper) who met during 1st grade, then became friends all the way till college. Everyone in their lives, friends and family specifically, all thought they should date, but they never did, and their friends and family began to get impatient. Eventually their friends (let's name them Jane and Jack) took the matter into their own hands -- Jane asked Piper, while Jack asked Jason, to go to a specific concert. At the last minute however, Jane and Jack cancelled, leaving Piper and Jason to attend the concert together -- which then resulted the two to begin dating and got married later after a few more years. In this sense, one can see that Jane and Jack were the catalysts in bringing about Piper and Jason's relationship.

10. Alloying - Mixing or combining different things together can yield better or different results. Example: When you mix eggs together and cook them, you get scrambled eggs. But when you mix eggs together with ham and cheese, you get a ham and cheese omelette.

Biology

1. Evolution Part One: Natural Selection and Extinction - In life, we always strive to survive via evolving and getting used to changes in life, as well as giving birth to children who will do the same cycle.  Example: Rabbits reproduce at an astounding rate, which would explain why they have lived over a very long time ever since prehistoric times or something.
   

2. Evolution Part Two:  Adaptation and The Red Queen Effect  - We can't be too comfortable in life; otherwise we will fall behind, especially since in order to survive another day, we need to keep up with the changes going on in this never-ending evolving world of ours.  Example: If you compare our current generation (Gen Z) with another generation (let's say, for instance, millennials), you would see we adapted differently to them since we are more exposed to more forms of technology and able to do more than a common millenial like being able to multi-task more efficiently or able to keep a balanced security and stability in life.
   

3. Ecosystems- There are always different groups of people around us: each different to the other, whether in the way they live, survive, or thrive in this world, since due to varying pressure or conditions being faced in life. Example:  If one would compare middle class versus poor people, you would see clearly that poor people have different problems than middle class such as having steady income in order to get hold of enough food, clean water, medicine and clothes.

4. Niches - We usually have skills or abilities that define us and see ourselves as the best in it, and thus in order to survive, we take those skills to the next level, even if there's the unavoidable fact of competition and people taking more than one skills. Example: We can sustain ourselves everywhere these days thanks to technology and current information, whether it would be in the coldest regions of Antarctica, in space, or in the driest and hottest deserts.

5. Self-Preservation - We always have the instinct to act so as to preserve one's own existence, or in simpler terms, keeping yourself alive or safe in a dangerous situation. Example: You would start running away when you see something dangerous like a giant bear or a bully coming after you.

6. Replication - This usually involves childbirth or rather having someone who is an exact copy of you in a way. Example: Sons are usually like their fathers, especially when they start growing up.

7. Cooperation - We should be always working together with someone to achieve results or a common goal in mind, since without it, we wouldn't be able to survive and we can't always be alone. Example: Rallies usually involves full cooperation of everyone who is willing to stand up and fight and speak their voices for a common cause in mind.

8. Hierarchical Organization  - It's basically a fancy way of knowing who is the leader and on top of things, who follows them and is sort of a sub-leader, and who follows the followers, and so on and so forth. Example: The Catholic Church, which consists of the Pope, then the Cardinals, Archbishops and so on and so forth.

9. Incentives   - We always need  something that motivates us to do something; otherwise, life will have no meaning for us. Example: overtime pay or extra money that is offered to employees who work overtime or extra hard in something.

10. Tendency to Minimize Energy Output (Mental & Physical)  - We people tend to create something or invent a method of which that minimizes energy usage when at all possible, since there is no denying that we are lazy, and also we always tend not to waste too much energy . Example: technology, online services, or every invention in the modern world that uses minimal effort to get the maximum output, like AIs such as Siri or Bixby, which is the fastest and easiest way to get information and manipulate the the world around you.

Systems

1. Feedback Loops  - Everything in life is mostly in a circle --it always go around and around and hence connected to each other.  Example:  A company that listens to employee's complaints and uses said complaints to improve internal structure and workplace satisfaction and thus their profits will increase.

2. Bottlenecks and Constraints  - In life , there are obstacles we face time and time again, and sometimes we get stuck on something, so we force ourselves to adapt and change ourselves in such a way to be successful and break through the challenges we face . Example: Everything in college, whether thesis or assignment, or projects, ain't always going to be easy or simple; we should always adapt to it and improve on it, or rather, learn new things to get through the thing with success.

3. Homeostasis and Equilibrium  - We always try to keep things balanced in life, no matter what, and so we always try to control ourselves and set a limit to things so that we won't create something catastrophic or worse. Example: Life as a student and life as a son.

4. Scales  - We always need to put some sort of measurement to things in order to set rules or standards when using it, or rather a way to know if the thing in mind needs improvement or something. Example: STAR Evaluation.

5.  Law of Diminishing Returns  - In life, when something or someone becomes successful or becomes powerful or more, others will be mostly remaining the same. Example: Give a poor kid food, and he is no longer hungry. But after a while, giving him more will not improve his life, for he is going to need something more than that.

6. Churn  - If something is lost, it must be replaced or regained. Example: in schools -- they lose students and families who move, transfer, or graduate; they lose teachers who retire or transfer: thus no school is ever the same from year to year.

7. Preferential Attachment (Cumulative Advantage)  - The leader is given more resources or rewards or benefits than his or her competitors, which thus gives him or her an great edge in life. Example: the first runner to pass a certain mark, say the one-mile mark, gets an energy drink and a granola bar: the slower one gets nothing.

8. Irreducibility  - In life, there are things needed to do certain things, or requirements, of which you can't simply control or make it smaller. Example: One can't simply make omelettes without eggs.

9. Margin of Safety and Backup Systems  - Anything can happen, especially when it comes to bad events, and not to mention everything isn't perfect, and so we always should be ready for anything and thus create a backup system or a Plan B of sorts, including a margin of safety or some sort of tool that says how safe we are, in order to make sure things go smoothly . Example: Plane has engine failure and has a lot of passengers.

10. Algorithms  - In life, there are always a set of rules that leads to a series of steps or actions resulting in something; it's somewhat a way of knowing how things go . Example:  Your every-day routine on the weekdays: you wake up, take a bath, eat breakfast, brush your teeth, and go to work whether by bus, bike, or car.

11. Criticality  - In life, things could be in a state of crisis or something that has to watched or taken seriously; hence we need to know our limitations before we reach our own states of crisis. Example:  People with suicidal tendencies -- people could only take so much negativity up to the point that they feel sorry for themselves and come to the realization that life will be so much better without them.

12. Emergence   - There is always something new popping up every day, awaiting to be discovered. Example: A new musician gets discovered and becomes a legendary music sensation or something.

Numeracy

1. Distributions  - There are processes in life that sort of says in numbers on how, what, or how much of the thing is in our world these days. Example: human population.

2. Compounding  - In life, we always tend to add value to something already known or something that already exists, in an infinite manner as well, but as we all know, things don't last. Example: Laptops and computers -- we always take care of them and always try to keep up-to-date with everything especially in software, tools, and everything computer-wise, but no matter how upgraded the thing is, it will eventually break down.

3. Law of Large Numbers  -Within large numbers of anything, one can determine averages thanks to the common factors surrounding the large number of something in particular Example: Rolling the dice, which involves six different events with equal probabilities

4. Multiplying by Zero  - Multiplying by zero is one of the simplest rules of multiplication: any number multiplied by zero, no matter how large or small, is still zero. Example: 5 x 0 = 0.

5. Algebraic Equivalence  - Using variables, multiplying, dividing, and adding them in the form of symbols or something has always been an important aspect in our society until today. Example: Calculations involving energy distribution, technology creation, etc.

6. Randomness  - In life, mostly there is no pattern or sequence to things; the unexpected is always never expected. Example: 5 x 0 = 0.

7. Regression to the Mean  - Everything evens out in the end, for anything that goes beyond, whether at the top or the bottom, will eventually go back to normal somewhat. Example: A student who is not known to be a honor student, who eventually won in a battle against the honor student in a spelling bee, most likely wouldn't win against the honor student again since the honor student would have improved more at the time, and may be more challenging to beat more than ever.

8. Surface Area  - The more space or area an object has usually means that the object could handle a lot, especially when it comes to such things like capacity. Example: A person with larger lungs could hold in his breath even longer compared to someone with average-sized lungs, since he has more air capacity held within.

9. Global and Local Maxima  - The global maxima is the absolute highest point for a thing in life, while the local maxima is the highest thing in life but not as compared to the absolute one .Example:  In a roller coaster, the local maxima would be the highest points of each hill, while the global maxima would be the highest point/s of the entire ride.

Microeconomics

1. Opportunity Costs  - One must make sacrifices in life in order to achieve something greater. Example: A player attends karate training to become a better fighter instead of taking a vacation. The opportunity cost in this sense is the vacation.

2. Creative Destruction  - There is always something or someone better than the original thing, or rather there will be something or someone that will replace something or someone in particular. Example: the Internet: which revolutionized pretty much everything in life, but created such losers like retail clears, bank tellers, secretaries, travel agents, mapmakers, and taxi cab drivers for they were replaced by such things like GPS apps, travel apps, apps similar to Uber or Grab, online banking and what not.

3. Comparative Advantage  - It is simply known as knowing what you do best while also giving up the least. Example: If you are a great repairman and a babysitter, your comparative advantage would be definitely repairing, since you can make more money as a plumber, and you can hire an hour of babysitting services for less than you would make doing a hour of repairing.

4. Specialization (Pin Factory)  - It is simply concentrating on and becoming an expert in a particular subject or skill in mind. Example: Certain countries like the Philippines specialize in producing goods and services that are native to their part of the world (like tropical countries being able to produce fruits and fish products) and then they trade them for other goods and services.

5. Seizing the Middle  - Being somewhere in the middle in order to have the most control over something and thus having the chance to have a lot of moves or plans to create in order to still maintain control. Example: when it comes to parenting, like knowing which battles to fight so that parents can keep the middle territory of the trust and respect of their children.

6. Trademarks, Patents, and Copyrights  - Objects used to protect one's original work, prevent theft or plagiarism or re-creation and distribution of one's work. Example: Asus, Dell, Apple are trademarks.

7.  Double-Entry Bookkeeping  - A process that involves the requirement that states that every entry, such as income, also be entered into such a way in order to track behavior of what is going on in a company, and also to ensure that there are no errors whatsoever in the accounts.  Example: say you purchase furniture like a lamp worth P2,500,  and then you apply double-entry bookkeeping ,in which the transaction would look like something similar to this: 

   Account	Debit	Credit
   Furniture	P2,500
   Cash		P2,500

    

8. Utility (Marginal, Diminishing, Increasing)  - We should know the value of things and how it is supposed to use, and also learn about how does utility diminish, increase, or become marginal. Example: Buying a soda: marginal -- satisfaction gained from buying can of soda; increasing --satisfaction is greatly earned when you get hold of another one since you are, for instance, extremely thirsty, and more drinks means more thirst-quenching ; diminishing --- satisfaction will decrease when more cans of soda are consumed

9. Bribery  - It is simply known as offering something you need in return for a favor: this is usually used in order to get away with something criminal. Example: A security officer in a company accepting money or a favor from criminals to allow access for theft or something diabolical. 

10. Arbitrage  - It is simply known as buying something for a cheap price and then selling the same thing for a higher and profitable price. Example: say a young kid purchases a 6-pack of coke for 50 pesos and sell each bottle for 20 pesos, thereby profiting around 120 pesos per pack.

11. Supply and Demand  -Supply refers to the amount of goods available, while demand refers to the how many people who want those goods. Example: the supply would refer to, say something like, how many iPhones are available in a store. The demand would be somewhere around more than 50,000 people which states how many would love to get ahold of an iPhone in that store.

12. Scarcity  - When resources becomes scarce or rather getting in a state of being few and less than usual, people should make decisions in regards to the availability of resources to meet human needs. Example: Access to food and supplies during COVID-19.

13. Mr. Market  - The stock market isn't always a friendly or a thing you can't control; it's unpredictable and uncontrollable, not to mention being moody and irrational.  Example: Stock market trading

Military and War

1. Seeing the Front  - Sometimes the old-fashioned ways are the best way, like being able to see what is in front of you and knowing what to do it rather than relying on advisors or state-of-the-art technology just to get your bearing correct. Example: The front-line in battle -- seeing through the trenches on what's going on, and knowing what to do to defend your base.

2. Asymmetric Warfare  - An event when the two main armies or opponents are of unequal size or strength; not to mention not playing by the rules and fighting in an unexpected manner. Example: the war in Afghanistan.

3. Two-Front War  - A war that is made when someone is engaging an enemy or enemies on more than one front, but less than three.Example:  World War II.

4. Counterinsurgency - A military action taken by a government in order to prevent attacks by small groups of soldiers or fighters that are opposed to it. Example:  the American Revolution

5.   Mutually Assured Destruction  - Parties with strong offensive capabilities tend to avoid conflict due to the fact that the conflict created could destroy them both.  Example: The Cold War -- nuclear weapons.

Human Nature and Judgement

1. Trust -The confidence in the honesty or integrity of someone or something; the main building block of every society; without it, no society would live. Example: The hope parents have when they let their kids borrow their car or use their car and not get involved in something outrageous.

2. Bias from Incentives - We want incentives, and with incentives from time to time, we create biases, and thus we have such thoughts or changes in our behavior like doubting such incentives that could happen. Example: pizza delivery: 30 minutes or its free.

3. Pavlovian Association - People don't just respond to incentives but also objects related to it. Example: If you hear a certain tone somewhere like a ringtone of sorts, you instinctively reach for your smartphone, only to realize it's coming from someone else's phone.

4. Tendency to Feel Envy & Jealousy -We are always having such thoughts of jealousy and envy, especially if we see someone who is having something better than us, and thus it leads us to irrational and somewhat devious decisions and intentions and desires in mind. Example: say you saw your classmate who brags about his new car, which is a super car, like a Lamborghini or a Porsche, and thus you feel so jealous of him since he has a super-awesome car while all you got is a lame bike, and also you have this desire to "get even with him" one day.

5. Tendency to Distort Due to Liking/Loving or Disliking/Hating - We people are always labeling everything, especially when it comes to things we like, love, dislike or hate. Example: We always love video games since it only takes little effort to do things and you get ahold of awesome rewards and stuff, but we sometimes dislike or hate school since you don't always get awesome rewards and it takes a lot of effort just to get something awesome.

6. Denial - It is simply known as refusing to accept or believe something, or rather contradicting something or someone . Example: People who are fat, but always saying "I'm not fat" or "I'm big-boned" or something similar.

7. Availability Heuristic - People make hasty and immediate judgements about the likelihood of an event based on how easily an example, instance, or case comes to mind, since we always tend to remember more what's important, recent, and abundant. Example: Say you have watched a lot of television programs on shark attacks, so then you would start that such incidents are relatively common, and thus when on vacation, you refuse to go somewhere with an ocean or sea involved like the beach because you believe that the chances of getting attacked by sharks is really high.

8. Representativeness Heuristic - We usually categorize situations based on certain patterns of past experiences or beliefs about the scenarios; rather this involves stereotyping from time to time. Example: Investors automatically assume that good companies make good investments, but that's not necessarily true since a company may be excellent in their own business, but could be poor in judging other businesses.

1. Failure to Account for Base Rates - We sometimes fail in looking at past mistakes, since we fail to realize that past mistakes affect our current state especially if we don't learn from it. Example: not looking into progress reports when it comes to daily profits of the company.

2. Tendency to Stereotype - We always tend to generalize and categorize things so easily, since we are always lazy in understanding it better and not to mention we are always automatic with the judgements. Example: The entirely discriminatory automatic concept that all blondes are automatically known as dumb bimbos or something less.

3. Failure to See False Conjunctions  -We always tend to fail in looking at the bigger picture of things, specifically in picking on what event is most likely to happen to us. Example: A political reporter asks you this question: which is more probable to happen for this woman who is a Democrat and presidential nominee: a) she wins the election, or b) she wins the elections and becomes an advocate for women's rights in the workplace. In this case, most people would pick scenario B because they assume that woman who is a Democrat will become an advocate for women in the workplace, but truthfully scenario A is more likely.

9. Social Proof (Safety in Numbers) - We always feel safe, comfortable, and relaxed when we are in a group, or rather in a place full of people.Example: Clubs, Organizations, and Teams in School

10. Narrative Instinct - We always love to tell stories, no matter what. Example: News Reports

11. Curiosity Instinct - We always tend to find out much more about things in our worlds, thanks to curiosity, for it gives us a spark needed to start a journey in obtaining new information and learning more about our ever-changing world. Example: The Age of Exploration.

12. Language Instinct - In order to understand each other, we tend to learn a lot of languages, especially since in this world of ours, to achieve world peace, we need to truly understand each other . Example: The large amount of human languages in the world

13. First-Conclusion Bias - Whatever comes first to mind, we tend to go immediately to a conclusion and immediate action, without even considering on what we are doing, or the consequences that may follow with the action done in mind. Example: let's assume you are buying a specific car, and then you go out and start noticing that so many people have the same car, and thus you come to the instant conclusion that the car you saw is so popular  and thus buying it without any second thoughts.

14. Tendency to Overgeneralize from Small Samples - We always tend to generalize or judge things automatically without having any evidence or knowledge to support such generalizations or judgements. Example: if one measures one person who happened to be around 6 feet, and then the person who did the measuring then tells everyone in the whole world is 6 feet tall --- one must realize immediately that must be a mistake.

15.   Relative Satisfaction/Misery Tendencies - We always tend to show satisfaction based on the state of our current peers or on your past, but when there's something negative going on with those things, we show misery. Example: Child-to-parent relationships.

16. Commitment & Consistency Bias - We always continue to act upon our previous commitments, or rather based on our promises, vows, and what not. Example: Breaking bad habits like smoking or drinking.

17.   Hindsight Bias - We always tend to say things that are certain to happen in our pretense, but when we already said and the opposite of the things we say happens, there's no turning back, and hence we are already proven wrong and embarrassed. Example: Say there is a letter in a mail -- you read it saying that you are accepted into a top college. However, when you tell your mother about it, your mother would say " I knew you were going to get in", which is funny, since she had expressed doubts to your father earlier that week.

18. Sensitivity to Fairness - We are always still in pursuit of perfect fairness or justice, but the pursuit causes a lot of terrible problems from time to time. Example: Mass Promotion

19.   Tendency to Overestimate Consistency of Behavior (Fundamental Attribution Error) - We always tend to overestimate things, as in when the situation comes to us, we fail to act properly, or rather we tend to be proven wrong. Example: People often tend to believe that people tend to be aggressive when they are threatened or something, but it can be also caused by something else such as a situation that makes the person angry.

20. Influence of Stress (Including Breaking Points) - Stress is something unavoidable in life, and it is well known that it causes a lot of negative effects on us, physically and mentally. Example: When we are in extreme distress, or in a breaking-point sort of state, we tend to mess things up in work or go into a rage and start lashing out.

21.  Survivorship Bias  -Success is the only thing that truly gives someone recognition -- hence why history is famously written by the victors, and not by losers -- it usually involves heroes or people who have achieved great things that make them a winner, and not people who struggle or lose or did something completely awesome only to just be rejected by society or something. Example: NBA Players like Michael Jordan or Kobe Bryant

22.  Tendency to Want to Do Something (Fight/Flight, Intervention, Demonstration of Value, etc.)   - We always wanted to be busy from time to time, up to the point we tend to solve problems even if we don't have the knowledge or skills necessary to solve it. Example: Marriage Counselors

23. Falsification / Confirmation Bias  - What we believe is what we choose to see, but sometimes we can be proven wrong. Example: You believe that left-handed people are more creative than right-handed people. This would mean that whenever you encounter someone who is left-handed and creative, you place greater importance on this evidence you see which supports on what you believe in. However, you can be proven wrong in a moment once you see a right-handed person who is painting or sculpting a figure.